2013 award presented in April 2015

Adelheid Voskuhl

The American Philosophical Society is pleased to award the 2014 Jacques Barzun Prize in Cultural History to Adelheid Voskuhl in recognition of her book Androids in the Enlightenment: Mechanics, Artisans, and Cultures of the Self (University of Chicago Press, 2013). The presentation of the award will take place on April 24 at the Society's 2015 Spring Meeting.

At the heart of Adelheid Voskuhl’s remarkable book are two musical androids created in the 18th century. Both are young women seated at keyboard instruments, the first at a harpsichord, which she plays with her own articulated fingers, the second at a dulcimer, which she taps with long hammers held in her small hands. The first player was made by Pierre and Henri-Louis Jacquet-Droz in Switzerland; the second by David Roentgen and Peter Kinzing near Cologne, and supposedly represents Marie-Antoinette. The music, the geography and the queen’s name begin to suggest that much of the century’s history might be reflected in these figures and Dr Voskuhl, through detailed accounts of the fabrication and display of the androids, the cultural programs they and their mechanical peers furthered, the reflections of such figures in literature, and the long legacy of their ‘travel’ through time to the present day, shows how machines have allowed humans think practically and theoretically through constructions of sentiment and subjectivity. Dr Voskuhl persuasively argues that we should seek to understand the androids in their own age before importing them into ours, or projecting our anxieties into theirs. This understanding holds all kinds of interesting surprises for us, and Dr Voskuhl is sharply critical of authors who rush to find the uncanny where it is not. However, the book ends on a discreetly subversive psychological and philosophical suggestion, and perhaps the uncanny, properly examined, will be allowed its return after all. The large question her book raises, Dr Voskuhl says, may be ‘not only whether we are becoming more and more like machines, but also whether we can assume that stable and reliable selfhood is possible even in the absence of machines’.

Adelheid Voskuhl is currently an associate professor in the Department of History and Sociology of Science and chair of the Science, Technology and Society Program at the University of Pennsylvania. Prior to her position at the University of Pennsylvania she was a Fellow in the School of Historical Studies at the Institute for Advanced Study and an associate professor in the Department of History of Science at Harvard University. Her research field comprises the history of technology from the early modern to the modern period. Her broader interests include the philosophy of technology, the history of the Enlightenment, and modern European intellectual and cultural history. She received her Ph.D. in Science and Technology Studies from Cornell University in 2007, and holds graduate degrees in History and Philosophy of Science from Cambridge University and in Physics from Carl-von-Ossietzky-Universität Oldenburg.

The Barzun Prize selection committee consisted of Michael Wood (chair), Charles Barnwell Straut Professor of English, Princeton University; Glen W. Bowersock, Professor Emeritus of Ancient History, Institute for Advanced Study; and Jeffrey Hamburger, Kuno Francke Professor of German Art & Culture, Harvard University.

2014 award presented in November 2015

Joel Kaye

The American Philosophical Society's 2015 Jacques Barzun Prize in Cultural History has been awarded to Joel Kaye, professor of history at Barnard College, in recognition of his book A History of Balance 1250-1375 (Cambridge University Press, 2014). The award presentation took place at the Society's Autumn General Meeting on November 13, 2015.

Joel Kaye's A History of Balance explores a peculiarly challenging subject: a large idea that seems to be everywhere but is not quite an idea. His title itself is a paradox or a sort of wager. How does one write the history of 'an unworded feeling' for how objects and spaces are or ought to be arranged, of an 'unworded sense' beneath the words that point to it or conceal it? The answer is simple but his practice is complex and subtle. He tracks the manifestations of the sense of balance through the thinking of a century and a quarter in four distinct areas: economics, medicine, political theory and natural philosophy. The contrasts among these areas are important but so are the confluences. Dr. Kaye finds in all of them an extraordinary range of new premises and assumptions: relation replaces hierarchy; mathematics moves its basis from arithmetic to geometry; estimation, approximation and probability become acceptable within the realm of knowledge; difference and diversity acquire a positive value. 'Each supports each', he says of his 'models of balance', 'each comes back to each'. This is how something that was 'never an idea' can belong so completely to the history of ideas.

The richness and care of Joel Kaye's attention to the work of, among others, Galen, Marsilius of Padua and Nicole Oreme are exemplary. Even when the alertness to balance in his sense begins to fade, when at the end of the fourteenth century 'the new model of equilibrium was imagined and evoked less and less by thinkers to explore the workings of either nature or society', he offers persuasive, interlocking explanations but proposes no final, single cause. He does suggest, though, that the 'retreat' of the model is 'as deep and wide-ranging' in its effects as its 'emergence' had been, and he invites us to think of parallel occasions in other times and places.

Joel Kaye joined the Barnard faculty in 1992. In addition to his teaching duties in the department of history, he is affiliated with Barnard's medieval and Renaissance studies program. His scholarly interests center on medieval intellectual history, with special interests in the history of science and the history of economic and political thought. His book Economy and Nature in the Fourteenth Century: Money, Market Exchange, and the Emergence of Scientific Thought, earned the John Nicholas Brown Prize from the Medieval Academy of America.

The Barzun Prize selection committee consisted of Michael Wood (chair), Charles Barnwell Straut Professor of English and Comparative Literature, Princeton University; Glen W. Bowersock, Professor Emeritus of Ancient History, Institute for Advanced Study; and Jeffrey Hamburger, Kuno Francke Professor of German Art & Culture, Harvard University.

2015 award to be presented in April 2017

Richard E. Payne

The American Philosophical Society is pleased to present the 2015 Jacques Barzun Prize in Cultural History to Richard E. Payne in recognition of his book A State of Mixture: Christians, Zoroastrians, and Iranian Political Culture in Late Antiquity (University of California Press).

The title of this learned and intensely researched volume comes from the period under study. It refers to the second of 'three successive three-thousand year stages' through which Zoroastrian religion pictured world history. After a first stage of ideal creation occurred an era of struggle with evil in which humans were still caught. It was their task to work toward the coming of the third stage, which would end history and restore perfection. But the title also has another meaning, contemporary with the writer and his readers, that not only evokes a religious and political mixture where scholars have mostly seen sectarian division and violence, but points to the positive values of the mixture. This is a 'Christian success' in a steadfastly Zoroastrian world, a matter of 'East Syrian secular and ecclesiastical leaders... acquiring wealth, forming relationships with imperial authorities and establishing religious institutions that transmitted their sources of economic and political capital across generations'. There is a paradox here, and that is what the book explores in persuasive detail. How could a Zoroastrian emperor succeed in 'elevating and suppressing Christianity' at the same time? How could Christians flourish in a world that was famous for persecuting them? Professor Payne does not underplay the violence and difficulty of many moments in this history, but he shows, through a close examination of Zoroastrian theology, Christian legend and law, and the common uses of symbols of power, that there was an authentic 'synergy between Christian and Iranian institutions', and suggests that 'the legacy of the politics of mixture extended well beyond the frontiers of the Iranian world'. There is much for us to learn from this account of 'the construction of an identity' that was shared by groups 'with irresolvable religious differences'.

Richard E. Payne, a historian of the Iranian world in late antiquity, ca. 200-800 CE, is Neubauer Family Assistant Professor in the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at the University of Chicago. He completed a doctorate in history at Princeton University. He was awarded the Bliss Prize from Dumbarton Oaks, the Crisp Fellowship from Phi Beta Kappa, a research fellowship from the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), and a visiting research scholarship from the Institute for the Study of the Ancient World at New York University. He was elected a research fellow of Trinity College, University of Cambridge. He joined the University of Chicago faculty in 2013.

The Barzun Prize selection committee consisted of Michael Wood (chair), Charles Barnwell Straut Professor of English and Comparative Literature, Princeton University; Glen W. Bowersock, Professor Emeritus of Ancient History, Institute for Advanced Study; and Jeffrey Hamburger, Kuno Francke Professor of German Art & Culture, Harvard University.

Todd R. Golub of the Dana Farber Cancer Institute for his work on "the individualization of cancer medicine."

The long-term goal of Todd Golub's research is the personalization of cancer treatment based on genetic principles. Currently, most cancers are diagnosed based on their microscopic appearance to an expert viewer. While this strategy is effective much of the time, the approach is imperfect, and results in mis-diagnoses in the case of molecularly distinct tumors whose appearance under the microscope is identical. Personalized medicine geared toward maximizing cures and minimizing side effects requires a move away from morphology-based cancer diagnosis and treatment planning, toward a system based on the molecular genetic features of a given patient's tumor.

Dr. Golub first approached this through the analysis of chromosomal abnormalities (translocations) present in patients with acute leukemia. He reasoned that such translocations mark the site of disruption of genes critical to leukemia development. He and his colleagues cloned a novel fusion gene that results from a t(12;21) translocation which fuses a gene discovered by Golub, named TEL, to another gene, AML 1. Dr. Golub subsequently demonstrated that the TEL/AML 1 fusion is the most common gene fusion in childhood leukemia, and furthermore, its presence is predictive of an outstanding response to chemotherapy. Eighty-one childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia patients were studied, and all of the twenty-two TEL/AML 1 positive patients in the series were cured. This result has been confirmed by investigators throughout the world, and testing for TEL/AML 1 is now routine at all major medical centers.

The success of the TEL/AML 1 story indicated that genetic features of cancer can be extremely useful in cancer diagnosis. Unfortunately, unlike leukemias, most other types of cancer do not carry chromosomal translocations that serve to pinpoint the location of cancer-causing genes. To address this problem, Dr. Golub has recently pioneered the use of DNA microarrays (“DNA chips”) for cancer diagnosis and prediction of treatment response. He and his colleagues combined the use of microarrays with novel computational algorithms to demonstrate in seventy-two leukemia patients that, for the first time, cancer diagnosis was indeed feasible (with 100% accuracy) using the molecular genetic patterns in tumors alone. This advance moved the field one step closer to the goal of cancer diagnosis based on the intrinsic genetic properties of each patient's tumor.

Dr. Golub's most recent work has taken this one step further, namely to identify genetic patterns in tumors that predict response to therapy. In particular, he has observed that the response of fifty-eight lymphoma patients to chemotherapy is predictable based on the genetic features of each patient's biopsy. Similarly, he has shown that the response of eighty-five children with the brain tumor medulloblastoma to brain radiation is also predictable. This type of approach has great promise for guiding the selection of treatment for patients not on the behavior of the “average patient,” but rather on the predicted behavior of each individual patient. It is anticipated that this approach will result in patients being more informed about their disease, and thus better able to choose a course of action that is suitable.

James E. Crowe, Jr., of the Vanderbilt University Medical Center for his work on "neonatal immune responses to virus infection or immunization."

Dr. James Crowe has made outstanding contributions in the areas of immunity to, and prevention of, infectious diseases of children, including the understanding of immunological immaturity in infants and the development of vaccines. His work is an excellent example of taking original basic research from the bench to the patient.

His first major contribution was the demonstration that recombined monovalent fragments of antibody molecules (Fab fragments) produced in bacteria could neutralize viruses. This opened the way for further studies of the usefulness of antibodies prepared in the laboratory for use in the therapy and prevention of infectious diseases.

His studies elucidated the roles of cellular, humoral, and mucusal immunity in resistance to infection by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and showed that maternal antibodies in newborns suppress the development of antibodies in the infant to RSV infection.

His most important contribution from the standpoint of clinical medicine was the development of a large number of RSV strains as live attenuated vaccine candidates. These vaccines are now in large scale clinical trials on several continents. In the developing of these vaccines, he first examined the genetic basis for the attenuation of the virus.

His work has thus spanned the spectrum from basic virology and immunology to the development of a vaccine that should play a major role in the control of one of the most severe respiratory diseases of infants and young children.

Flaura K. Winston of the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia for her work on "biomechanical and psychological foundation of pediatric trauma prevention and treatment."

Dr. Flaura Winston has pioneered biomechanical epidemiology, a discipline that combines engineering, medicine, and public health in order to understand, and treat pediatric car crash injuries, the leading cause of death and acquired disability for children in the United States.

She identified the first case of air bag-associated child death. In 1998 she created, and heads, the Partners for Child Passenger Safety, which has collected information on 173,000 crashes involving more than 260,000 children. It is the leading resource for data on child passenger injuries, providing information to both vehicle manufacturers and legislative bodies. Her research and advocacy have led to drafting new federal air bag policies. Thirteen states now require booster seats for children after they graduate from child safety seats.

Having observed that children in the rear seats of small pick-up trucks are at greater risk of injury and death than those in the front seat, a reversal unique to this type of vehicle, she spurred collaborations between the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration and vehicle manufacturers to develop new test procedures and improved safety designs.

She has developed and tested a screening tool to aid emergency physicians in recognizing children and parents at risk of post traumatic stress disorder, and is currently developing interventions to prevent the development of the disorder.

Ali Gharavi of Columbia University for his work on "genetic studies of IgA nephropathy."

Dr. Ali Gharavi has demonstrated that a major gene on chromosome 6 affects the risk of IgA nephropathy, changing prevailing concepts about the pathogenesis of this disorder, and showing that disease occurrence and familial aggregation have a significant genetic basis.

The biological basis for the development of kidney failure is poorly understood, limiting the development of effective therapeutic or preventive measures. Dr. Gharavi's studies focus on IgA nephropathy, one of the most common causes of kidney failure worldwide. Familial, ethnic and geographic aggregation of IgA nephropathy has usually been considered to have environmental causes. Dr. Gharavi hypothesized that this clustering could be explained by shared genetic factors. He identified and enrolled thirty families in the United States and Italy that had two or more individuals affected, screened other family members and identified individuals with early or mild manifestations, not usually leading to referral for medical evaluation.

After performing a genome-wide search, he found that in the majority of families the disease is attributable to a single locus on chomosome 6q22-23. He repeated the findings in a new cohort of patients with IgA nephropathy. urther genealogic work and genetic analysis have led to the discovery of shared chromosomal segments among distantly related patients with no affected immediate family members. His findings provide strong evidence for a gene with large affect of IgA nephropathy.

By validating that IgA nephropathy can have a genetic cause, he has made clinicians aware that family history should be routinely investigated, and family members with urinary abnormalities should be referred for nephrologic evaluation for early therapy, before the development of renal failure. Family members with a history of urinary abnormalities are now advised against donating kidneys to affected patients. Dr. Gharavi's work on the genetic basis of IgA nephropathy changes our understanding of the pathogenesis of glomerulonephritis and renal failure.

Brendan Lee of Baylor College of Medicine for his work in "skeletal genetics and inborn errors of metabolism."

Dr. Lee has been a pioneer in the discovery of basic DNA defects in skeletal disorders. He discovered the first such defect in a form of chondrodystrophy: a defect in type II collagen in spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia. Other work has involved a form of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome and Marfan syndrome. His work in genetic metabolic disorders (the so-called urea cycle disorders) has been useful in their diagnosis and treatment.

Dr. Lee was the first to identify mutations causing achondrodysplasia and one of the first to associate the fibrillin gene with Marfan syndrome. He also was first to demonstrate mutations causing cleidocranial dysplasia and nail-patella syndrome. He developed stabilized isotope methods from measuring ureagenesis for diagnosis and management urea cycle disorders.

James A. Levine of the Mayo Clinic for his work on "energy expenditure and obesity."

Dr. Levine has elucidated the physiologic basis for the individual variation in susceptibility to weight gain in response to overeating. From observations in non-obese volunteers overfed in excess of weight-maintenance requirements, he found a 10-fold difference in fat storage. Two-thirds of the rise in total daily energy expenditure was due to increased non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT), which is associated with fidgeting, maintenance of posture, and other physical activities of daily life. Changes in NEAT accounted for the 10-fold differences in fat storage and directly predicted resistance to fat gain with overfeeding. The results were interpreted as indicating that as humans overeat, activation of NEAT dissipates excess energy to preserve leanness and a failure to active NEAT may result in fat gain.

Studies quantitating differences in "posture allocation" (fidgeting and so on) indicated that obese individuals were seated, on average, two hours longer per day then lean individuals. Dr. Levine estimated that the NEAT-enhanced behaviors of the lean subjects resulted in their expending an additional 350 calories per day. Posture allocation did not change when the obese individuals lost weight or when the lean individuals gained weight, suggesting that it is biologically determined.